The painting Salvator Mundi has been the subject of heated debate in the art world ever since its rediscovery in 2005. While it was once considered lost, Salvator Mundi emerged from obscurity to become the most expensive painting ever sold at auction in 2017, fetching a staggering $450 million. The painting’s attribution to Leonardo da Vinci, the legendary Renaissance polymath, has captivated the public and scholars alike. Yet, controversy persists over whether the painting was genuinely created by Da Vinci or by someone from his workshop.
Salvator Mundi was believed to have been painted around 1500, during the same period as Leonardo’s Mona Lisa. It depicts Christ with his right hand raised in blessing, while his left hand holds a crystal orb, symbolizing his dominion over the world. The painting was presumed lost for centuries, known only through copies made by Leonardo’s students and other artists. In 2005, the painting resurfaced in New Orleans, heavily overpainted and damaged, and its significance went unnoticed for some time.
Restoration and Reattribution
It wasn’t until a group of art dealers, including Robert Simon and Alexander Parrish, purchased the painting in a small New Orleans auction in 2005 for less than $2,000, that the process of restoration began. Initially believed to be a damaged copy, the dealers took it to conservator Dianne Dwyer Modestini, who began restoration efforts. By 2007, as layers of overpainting were removed, Modestini uncovered a pentimento (a visible trace of an earlier composition) showing that the thumb of Christ’s blessing hand was initially straight before being changed to a curved position. The discovery of two thumbs on Christ’s right hand was pivotal, as it indicated the artist had rethought the figure’s pose. This kind of alteration suggests the work is an original, not a copy, since a replica would not include such mid-process adjustments.
Further analysis and examination took place over the next several years, and by 2011, after much scrutiny by leading art historians and specialists, Salvator Mundi was officially presented as a work by Leonardo da Vinci at the National Gallery in London as part of their exhibition Leonardo da Vinci: Painter at the Court of Milan. The attribution immediately caught the attention of both the art world and the public, turning the once overlooked painting into a sensation.
Attribution: Da Vinci or Workshop?
The attribution of Salvator Mundi to Leonardo da Vinci has been fiercely contested. In 2011, after extensive research and analysis, several prominent scholars, including Martin Kemp, one of the world’s foremost Leonardo experts, endorsed the painting as an authentic Leonardo. Kemp, in his book Christ to Coke: How Image Becomes Icon (2012), argues that the sophisticated rendering of light and the ethereal quality of Christ’s face are consistent with Leonardo’s genius. Kemp’s support helped solidify the attribution in the eyes of the public and the art market.
However, not all scholars agree. Frank Zöllner, another respected Leonardo specialist, has raised doubts, suggesting that some elements of the painting, such as the less-than-ideal anatomy of Christ’s hand and the awkward positioning of his fingers, could indicate the work of Leonardo’s studio assistants rather than the master himself. Zöllner’s skepticism is shared by Matthew Landrus, who in his book Leonardo da Vinci: The Marvellous Works of Nature and Man (2018) posits that much of the painting was likely completed by Leonardo’s assistants, with the master only contributing to certain key areas.
Technical Analysis and Questions of Authenticity
Scientific analysis has played a crucial role in the debate over Salvator Mundi. Infrared reflectography and X-ray scans revealed that there were multiple layers of underdrawing beneath the final painted surface, a hallmark of Leonardo’s working method. Additionally, the handling of light in the folds of Christ’s robe and the translucency of the orb suggest Da Vinci’s deep understanding of optics, further supporting the attribution to him.
Yet, the painting’s condition and extensive restoration complicate the matter. Large portions of Salvator Mundi were heavily overpainted, which makes it difficult to assess the original work with certainty. Some art historians argue that while the basic design may have originated in Leonardo’s studio, the actual execution could have involved significant input from his assistants, who were known to finish paintings that the master only began.
A Work of Collaboration?
The Renaissance art world was often collaborative, with masters like Da Vinci overseeing workshops of students and apprentices who would assist in the creation of major works. Art historian Carmen Bambach has proposed that much of Salvator Mundi‘s original surface may have been painted by Boltraffio, with certain sections—such as Christ’s right hand raised in blessing, parts of the sleeve, his left hand, and the crystal orb—being done by Leonardo himself.
This theory is bolstered by the fact that several near-identical versions of Salvator Mundi exist, painted by Leonardo’s pupils, which raises questions about the originality of the work. If multiple versions were produced in his studio, it is possible that the painting sold as a Leonardo original is simply one of many workshop replicas with only limited involvement by the master.
The Sale and Public Scrutiny
In 2017, Salvator Mundi became the most expensive painting ever sold, fetching $450 million at a Christie’s auction. The buyer is widely believed to be Saudi Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman, though the Saudi government has never officially confirmed this. The sale brought the painting not only unprecedented media attention but also intensified the debate over its attribution. Some critics argue that the astronomical price tag was driven by speculation and marketing, rather than a unanimous scholarly consensus that the painting is a genuine Leonardo.
In fact, since the sale, the painting has been surrounded by mystery. It has not been publicly exhibited, and its current location is unknown, though rumors suggest it may be housed in a private collection. The painting’s disappearance from public view has only added to its mystique, fueling further debate about its authenticity and the motives behind its purchase.
Public Perception and the Power of Leonardo’s Name
The controversy over Salvator Mundi reveals much about the art market’s reliance on brand recognition and the power of a famous name. The value of the painting skyrocketed once it was attributed to Leonardo da Vinci, despite lingering doubts among experts. As Ben Lewis explores in his book The Last Leonardo (2019), the painting’s value is inextricably tied to its association with Da Vinci, regardless of whether the attribution is fully accepted by the academic community. Lewis delves into the painting’s complex history and the machinations of the art world that led to its record-breaking sale.
For many, the allure of owning a work by Leonardo da Vinci—one of the most revered artists in history—was enough to justify the astronomical price. However, this raises ethical questions about the commodification of art and the role of authenticity in determining a painting’s worth. If Salvator Mundi was not painted entirely by Leonardo, should it still command such a price?
The Restoration in Controversy
Restoration has played a significant role in the Salvator Mundi debate. When the painting was first rediscovered, it was in poor condition, with much of its surface obscured by overpainting. The restoration process, led by conservator Dianne Dwyer Modestini, revealed hidden details that seemed to point to Leonardo’s hand. However, critics argue that the heavy restoration also makes it difficult to assess how much of the original painting survives and how much is the result of modern intervention.
Modestini has defended the restoration, arguing that the underlying painting is consistent with Leonardo’s techniques and that the work was carefully done to preserve the original intent. Nonetheless, some art historians remain skeptical, believing that the restoration has muddied the waters of attribution.
The Future of Salvator Mundi
As the debate over Salvator Mundi continues, its future remains uncertain. Whether it will eventually be displayed in a public museum or remain in private hands is unknown, but the painting has undoubtedly become a cultural icon. The ongoing controversy about its attribution underscores the complexities of art history, where scientific analysis, expert opinion, and market forces intersect in unpredictable ways.
Ultimately, Salvator Mundi will likely remain an enigma, a painting that, like so many works from the Renaissance, defies easy categorization. Whether painted entirely by Leonardo da Vinci or with the help of his workshop, the painting’s history, mystery, and beauty ensure that it will continue to capture the public’s imagination for generations to come.